第二章 谋篇布局

第一节 文章的首段

通常情况下，专四考试写作部分的首段主要包含两个部分：一是篇章主题句（the thesis statement）；二是开篇（the opening）。

（一）首段的作用

众所周知，一个成功的开篇可以唤起读者的兴趣，从而吸引读者阅读全文，并提供给他们理解文章所需要的背景知识。而在专四写作中，文章的主旨句一般都位于首段的段尾，这样，全文的开头还可起到开门见山、陈述文章主题的作用。

一般而言，一个好的开篇可以分为以下四个部分，即INTRODUCTION+TOPIC+THESIS+LAYOUT,其中每个部分分别起到以下四个方面的作用，即介绍背景，引出话题，表明观点，交代布局。例如，The Benefits of Travels一文的开头段：With the rapid development of our living standards,more and more people can afford travels at home or even abroad.（介绍背景）As a matter of fact,travels have become a part of our life.（引出话题）And accordingly,more and more people begin to realize the benefits of travels.（表明观点）Speaking from my own experience,travels do not only relax my body and refuel my spirit,but also broaden my mind significantly.（交代布局）

在以上这一个开篇段落中，作者首先介绍了主题的背景，说明了当前现状，即外出旅游正在被越来越多的人所接受。紧接着，作者引出了文章的话题，表明了文章论述的中心内容是外出旅游这一现象。然后，作者又表达了自己的观点，这也正是本文的主题句：More and more people begin to realize the benefits of travels，即越来越多的人感受到了旅游为我们带来的益处。从这句话中我们可以看出，作者对外出旅游这件事持肯定的态度，他认为这一活动可以为我们带来很多益处。最后，作者交代了后续文章主体段落的布局，即从relax my body,refuel my spirit,broaden my mind（放松身体，焕发精神，开阔胸襟）这三个方面进行推展论述，以进一步拓展并支持自己的主题句。与此同时，这也自然地引导读者进入了下文的主体段落，使全文的发展衔接自然，合情合理。

（二）篇章的主题句（The Thesis Statement）

一般而言，在专四写作中，全文的主题句位于开头段的末尾，主要作用是表述全文的中心思想，它实际上回答了一篇作文的以下这些问题，即What’s the subject of this essay?What’s the writer’s opinion on the subject?What’s the writer’s purpose in this essay?由此可见，它是作者思维的起点，扣题的准绳，阐述的对象。如果考生能写好全文的主题句，全文就能围绕主题句中心思想展开有效的论述，避免出现主题不明、层次不清、内容空泛的现象，也就是说，文章的推展才能顺利、自然、通畅。

通常情况下，成功的主题句必须观点明确，符合题目要求和主题，例如在支持或反对某种看法时，一定要清楚地表达自己的立场观点，或支持或反对，不能模棱两可，左右不定。

（三）通用的开篇方法（The Opening）

俗话说，“好的开始是成功的一半。”文章开头段落的好坏，在很大程度上影响着阅卷老师对考生整体作文水平的第一印象，从而直接反映在作文的总体得分上面。鉴于此，下文将从归纳法和演绎法这两种思维方式的角度入手，介绍几种主要的开篇方法。

1.归纳法（Induction）

归纳法（a method of discovering general rules and principles from particular facts and examples）是一种由个别到一般的论证方法。它通过列举多个个别的事例或分论点，归纳出它们所共有的特性，从而得出一个一般性的结论。归纳法是从个别性知识引出一般性知识的推理,是由已知真的前提,引出可能真的结论。将这一种方法应用于写作的开头段，表现在作者首先采用叙事法、数据法、提问法等方法进行论述，为下文作出铺垫，然后通过对前文这些铺垫内容的简短论述，得出作者的观点或结论，即文章的主题句。

方法之一：叙事法

这种方法以叙述故事或背景为开头，通过对某一故事或背景的分析，顺理成章地引出作者对这一话题的观点态度。例如：

Early Sunday morning,the young mother dressed her little girl warmly and gave her a well-worn stuffed rabbit.She drove the little girl to a Methodist church and told her to wait on the stone.Then she drove off,abandoning her five-year-old because she couldn’t cope with being a parent anymore.This incident is one of thousands of cases of child neglect and abuse that occur annually.

上面这段话以一个虚构的故事引出了文章的话题,即社会上存在年轻的父母不负责任地抛弃自己儿女的现象。前面的细致描写吸引了读者的注意力，使得读者很快进入了文章创制的情景，并对这一社会现象产生了更直观、深刻的认识，从而利于他们理解后文作者的观点。

通过阅读以上的例子，我们可以看到，要达到描写生动的效果，最重要的一点，便是作者要善于借助于具体的并能在读者脑海中形成生动画面的形容词或副词、动词以及名词。例如，副词warmly表现了这位年轻母亲此时不舍又无奈的复杂心情；名词词组a well-worn stuffed rabbit，a Methodist church都是具体的实体名词，只有它们才能给读者以真实的感觉，甚至使读者相信文章中描写的情景就发生在自己的身边；动词dress,give,drive,tell等则形象地将母亲一系列的行为串联了下来。因此，考生在使用叙事法进行描写时，可以适当地选择这类词语。

练习：

①请填入适当的动词

Steve,a typical American,（1）home on workdays.He（2）a computer terminal in order to hook up with the office,and he（3）work during the day by electronic mail and a faxmodem.In the evenings,he（4）his stereo headphones,（5） a movie on his VCR,or onto the computer to visit the Internet.On many days,Steve doesn’t（6）any other human beings,and he doesn’t （7）any people except those on television.Steve is imaginary,but his lifestyle is very common.More and more,the inventions of modern technology seem to be cutting us off from contact with our fellow human beings.

参考答案：

（1）stays,（2）plugs into,（3）sends and receives,（4）puts on,（5）watches,（6）talk to,（7）see

②请填入适当的名词或名词词组

Nowadays,advertisements are found everywhere.They smile at us from（1）,shout to us from（2）,wave invitingly to us from（3）,pluck at our sleeves（4）,signal to us from（5）in day time and flash messages to us in colored lights all night.

参考答案：

（1）the television screen,（2）the radio loudspeakers,（3）every page of newspaper and magazines,（4）on the buses and escalators,（5）roadside billboards

③请填入适当的形容词或副词

In this country,we often can see such a picture:a（1）woman,with her little sleeping son clung to her back,is cleaning and polishing shoes for a（2）lady.The（3）lady is also with his son,a boy（4）,（5）,apparently from a（6）family.The picture is heart-rending—a dramatic view of the widening gap between rich and poor in our nation.

参考答案：

（1）weary-looking,（2）well-dressed,（3）dressy,（4）high-flying,（5）fashionably-dressed,（6）well-to-do

由于专四写作的题材通常是社会或校园中的热点问题，这更利于考生联系生活实际，通过对与话题相关的故事或背景的描写，巧妙地引出自己的观点，使文章在得分方面能够上一个档次。但值得注意的是，考生在使用这一方法时，切勿花费大量的时间和精力用在如何使自己的描写出众上面，这样往往导致开头段落占用篇幅过大，写作时间不够，全文的结构分布不均。因此，考生一定要明确，开篇只是一个文章的铺垫，描写的最终目的是为了引出全文的主题句，切不可本末倒置，为了描写而描写。

方法之二：数据法

这种方法要求作者在文章的开头引用具有权威性与说服力的统计数据或图表数据，以此将某一现象或问题客观地呈现给阅卷老师，使老师对这一现象先有一个具体的直观的认识，然后再引出文章的话题和主题句，为下文的拓展作铺垫，例如，The Advantages and Disadvantages of Private Tutoring一文的开头：

A recent investigation shows that about 80 percent of the primary school pupils have private tutors and about half of the university undergraduates have the experience of being private tutors.Private tutoring has both advantages and disadvantages,yet in my opinion,it does more harm than good to students.

通过两个数据80 percent of the primary school pupils和half of the university undergraduates，从私立学校和本科学校这两类学校的学生这两个角度说明了家教现象的普及，数据准确，有说服力，使得读者首先对家教现象有了足够的重视，从而顺理成章地引出下文。

练习：运用数据法在每一个段落的横线处填入适当的句子

①Statistics show that______.Because a college education is regarded as the key to a successful career,this puts enormous pressure on the applications.It also causes social problems,as those who fail the exam consider the failure a disgrace to the family.（My Views on College Education）

参考答案：

there’re no more than 40% of people who take the college entrance exam pass

②According to a recent survey by China Daily,______.

This is more than an economic problem.If it were not handled properly,it would result in serious social problems.Effective measures must be taken to solve it.（Why College Students Have Difficulties Finding a Job?）

参考答案：

about 15%percent of college graduates have difficulties in finding a job after their graduation and the number seems to be increasing

③Statistics show that______.

All these people are now living healthier,happier,and thinner lives,thanks to the remarkable intestinal bypass surgery first developed in 1967.（The Intestinal Bypass Surgery）

参考答案：

a two-hundred-pound teenager quit school because no desk would hold her.A three-hundred-pound chef who could no longer stand on his feet was fired.A three-hundred-fifty-pound truck driver broke furniture in his friends’house

数据的引用最终是为引出后文的主题句服务的，因此，考生在选择具体的数据时可以采用逆向思维的方法，即先根据文章的题目确定主题句，再从考生平日所积累的数据中找出最切题的一组引用。此外，引用数据说明时，语言要客观具体，以增强文章的说服力，用一句或两句话概括引用的内容即可，切忌长篇大论、喧宾夺主。

方法之三：提问法

这种方法要求考生在文章的开头段落中，通过提问来激起读者的兴趣，并通过对这个问题的逻辑分析，引出作者对某一现象的观点，即篇章的主题句。一般而言，提出问题有以下两种方法。

A.设问法

即在文章的开头提出一个或几个与主题相关的问题，然后自己回答，从而引出论题，例如：

Should smoking be banned?Answers to this question vary greatly.Some people are in favor of the banning of smoking,because it is not only strongly offensive to people around the smokers,but it is also harmful to the smokers themselves.I side with opponents of smoking in this regard.

以上的这段话以问题开篇来引起读者的阅读兴趣，然后自问自答，引出大众的观点，从而清楚地表明了作者自己的立场。

B.反诘法

即在文章开头处运用反诘句反问读者，然后引出作者自己的观点，例如：

“What can we learn from American management?”was the question asked all over the world only 10 years ago.Now it is perhaps time to ask:what can American management learn from others in the free world,and especially from management in Western Europe and Japan?Indeed,Europe and Japan now have the managerial edge in many of the areas which we used to consider American strengths,if not American monopolies.

以上的这段话先是通过问题点出主题：美国的管理制度，然后通过一个相反意义的问题引出文章的中心思想：在管理上欧洲和日本已经超过了美国。

练习：运用提问法在每一个段落的横线处填入适当的问题

①（1）To judge this issue,we should look at three aspects:（2） （3）（4）

Indeed,the development of private cars in China is a natural result of modern industrialization and a marked indication of modern civilization,which has brought much convenience to our daily life.However,I still agree to the idea that its disadvantages outweigh its disadvantages.（My View on the Development of Private Cars in China）

参考答案：

（1）Should the development of private cars be encouraged or restricted in China?

（2）What are the advantages of private cars?

（3）What are their disadvantages?

（4）Is China ready for the free development of private cars?

②What is love?（1）（2）（3）

Love,as we all know,is difficult to define.But most people agree that true and lasting love involves far more than mere physical attraction.Love involves mutual respect,the desire to give rather than to take,and the feeling of being wholly at ease.（My View on Love）

参考答案：

（1）How do we know that we are really in love?

（2）When we meet that special person,how can we tell that our feelings are genuine and not merely infatuation?

（3）And if they are genuine,will these feelings last?

在使用设问法开篇的过程中，考生要注意选用自然、恰当的方式，用一两句话有效地衔接所要提出的问题与所要表达的主题句，例如在设问法例子中的一句：Answers to this question vary greatly.这样便使得作者在提出自己的观点时不会显得过于突兀。

2.演绎法（Deduction）

演绎法（a process of using information you have in order to understand a particular situation or to find the answer to a problem）是一种从普遍性结论或一般性事理推导出个别性结论的论证方法。在演绎论证中，普遍性结论是依据，而个别性结论是论点。演绎推理与归纳推理相反，它反映了论据与论点之间由一般到个别的逻辑关系。它的思维运动方向是由一般到个别，由抽象到具体，即演绎的前提是一般性知识，是抽象性的，而它的结论却是个别性知识，是具体的。将这一种方法应用于写作的开头段，要求作者通过定义法、引文法、人以群分法等方法阐明对于文章主题的已知的权威性的定论，为下文作出铺垫，然后简短论述分析前文铺垫的内容，最终得出作者推论出的结论和观点，即文章的主题句。

方法之一：定义法

这种方法要求作者通过释义文章的关键词，引出文章的主题句，以便更加客观、明确、具体地表明作者的观点。例如Should Euthanasia Be Advocated的开头段：

Euthanasia，a quiet and easy death,or“mercy killing”,has become a heated topic among people recently.Many people applaud it and argue that euthanasia should be advocated in our society.

在这段话中，作者首先对文章的主题euthanasia给予了一个通俗易懂的解释，使得读者更加容易理解文章论述的中心，完整地把握主旨句中作者的观点。

练习：运用定义法在每一个段落的横线处给文章的主题下定义

①As Edison defines success,_____.

Indeed,to achieve more in the future,we college students should value tedious and hard work and do our utmost to grasp more practical knowledge no matter how intelligent we are or are supposed to be.

参考答案：

genius was one percent inspiration and 99 percent perspiration

②According to The New Oxford Dictionary of English,frustration,by definition,means_____.Since frustration seems to be a negative feeling some people may be tempted to think that frustration is bad for people.They believe that constant frustration may cause serious mental health problems.People suffering from such psychological problems often resort to violence or suicide,which poses a big threat to the people around them and thus causes instability to the whole society.

参考答案：

the feeling of being upset or annoyed,especially because of an inability to change or achieve something

在使用定义法开篇的过程中，考生要注意选用自然、恰当的方式，将所提出的问题与所要表达的主题句用一两句话进行有效的过渡，例如在以上例文中的一句：Euthanasia has become a heated topic among people recently.这样便使得作者在提出自己的观点时不会显得过于突兀。

方法之二：引文法

这种方法要求作者在文章的开头引用与主题相关的名人名言、谚语、观点等，以引出后文的论述，增强文章说服力，吸引读者，例如：

Hegel,the German philosopher,says,“We learn from history that men never learn anything from history.”This remark has been confirmed again and again by historical events,one of which is Hitler’s invasion of the Soviet Union.He must have forgotten or ignored the great disaster Napoleon brought upon himself by attacking Russia early in the nineteenth century.

这段话以黑格尔的名言开篇，引言贴切准确，增强了文章的吸引力，给读者留下了深刻的印象。接着，又以希特勒的例子来加以说明，表达准确，过渡自然。

练习：运用引文法在每一个段落的横线处填上合适的名言或谚语

①The saying（1）is almost universally accepted because of the plain yet philosophical moral it teaches us:（2）.The saying is true of any pursuit man seeks.Whatever one wishes to accomplish,he has to exert himself to forge ahead,for nobody can expect to gain something for nothing.（The Importance of Hardship）

参考答案：

（1）“No pains,no gains”

（2）if one wants to achieve something,he has to work hard and tolerate more hardship than others

②_____,says the African proverb.Caught in the biggest lie of his political career,once-popular local mayor Paul TerGhist is learning the meaning of this old saying the hard way,as his former friends and supporters are now deserting him.

参考答案：

One falsehood spoils a thousand truths

在引用名言后，作者切忌生硬地立即提出自己的观点，而应具体地解释这句名言的含义，使全段从引用的名言自然地过渡到文章的主旨上来，例如A cosmic definition as it seems,however,Epstein’s words can,on the whole,be interpreted and summarized into one sentence:to be ambitious is to strive for our own personal goals set upon our own values regardless of the possible outcome and controversy.此外，考生在备考过程中，应注意搜集一些长度适中、稍加改动即可套用的引文，以方便在考试中使用。

方法之三：人以群分法

这种方法要求作者在文章的开头，首先比较人们对某一个话题的不同观点，然后通过简练的几句分析得出自己的观点，即文章的主题句。事实上，根据作者的观点与公众普遍看法的关系，这种开篇方法可以分为以下两类：

A.对立法

使用对立法时，作者首先陈述对某一话题或现象的普遍看法，再给出自己支持其中一方的见解，例如：

Last week,our department held an English debate on which was more important in the present-day society,cooperation or competition.The affirmative side argued for the priority of cooperation as opposed to competition,whereas the negative side defended the reverse.After a tug-of-war,neither side seemed to gain much ground.Finally,the affirmative side won,largely thanks to our traditional preference for cooperation.I was neither a contestant nor a referee at that time.If I have been either of them,I would have,in support of the negative side,drummed up support for the contention that competition is more important than cooperation in the current situation.

在这段话中，作者首先给出了一个具有争议性的话题，也就是文章的主题：cooperation or competition,然后分别陈述了人们对这一问题的普遍观点，最后，作者提出自己支持其中的一方观点。

值得一提的是，这种方法适合用于作文题目中要求在两种观点中择其一的文章，即A or B型。此外，在陈述公众的普遍看法时，除了比较不同人的不同观点，还可以从时间的角度将人们的看法进行分类，即通过今与昔的对比，体现观点态度的变化。例如：

In the 1950s African Americans demanded the right to sit anywhere they pleased on public buses.Today,Americans who use wheelchairs are fighting for the right to board those same buses.Here in Smallville,the lack of proper boarding facilities often denies disabled citizens basic transportation to jobs,grocery stores,and medical centers.To give people in wheelchairs the same opportunities as other residents,the City Council should vote the funds necessary to convert the public transportation system.

这段话通过使用今昔对比的方法，介绍了美国人对于wheelchairs态度的变化，从而引出作者对于这一现象的思考，即文章的主旨句：To give people in wheelchairs the same opportunities as other residents,the City Council should vote the funds necessary to convert the public transportation system.

练习：运用对立法在横线处填入合适的句子

①Several years ago,（1）.“Why?Maybe he is short of money,”they thought.Nowadays,（2）.Many students put up advertisements on bulletin boards or lamp posts to search for odd jobs.Why do many students show such great interest in part-time or summer jobs?（Should College Students Take a Part-time Job?）

参考答案：

（1）people were often surprised when they heard that a college student was holding a part-time job;

（2）it is not an uncommon occurrence that college students are working as tutors,salesmen and tour guides

②Ever since,the easing of school children’s study burden has been advocated by educators.Some teachers and parents frown upon it,saying that（1）.While the others argue that（2）.As far as I am concerned,easing school children’s study burden will definitely do good to school children both physically and mentally.（Should We Ease School Children’s Study Burden?）

参考答案：

（1）it will exert bad effects on the children

（2）it’s a good chance to develop the children’s interest if they are channeled properly

③Several years ago,daydreaming was generally considered（1）.Nowadays,recent research indicates that（2）.Daydreaming,science has discovered,is an effective relaxation technique.However,as far as I am concerned,its beneficial effects go far beyond this since experiments show that daydreaming significantly contributes to intellectual growth,powers of concentration,and the ability to interact and communicate with others.（My View on Daydreaming）

参考答案：

（1）either waste of time or a symptom of neurotic tendencies,and habitual daydreaming was regarded as evidence of maladjustment or an escape from life’s realities and responsibilities

（2）daydreaming is part of daily life and that a certain amount each day is essential for maintaining equilibrium

B.转折法

转折法与对立法的相似点在于：都是在文章的开头陈述人们对某一现象的普遍看法，不同之处在于：在转折法中，作者对人们的普遍看法持反对态度。通过与大众观点的对比，作者进一步提出自己的观点，以此给读者留下深刻的印象。例如：

One of the strangest features of motherhood is that the vast majority of mothers prefer to cradle their babies in the left arm.Why is this so?The obvious explanation is that the majority of mothers are right-handed and they wish to keep their right hand free.Unfortunately,this explanation cannot be upheld,because left-handed mothers also favor their left arm for holding their babies.The precise figures are 83 percent for right-handed mothers and 78 percent for left-handed mothers.

在这个开头段中，作者首先陈述了人们对于母亲习惯用左臂抱孩子这一现象的普遍看法，接着话锋一转，提出了自己对这一看法的质疑，从而激发了读者继续阅读的兴趣，从这个例子中我们也可以看出，前文的公众看法只是一个铺垫，后文中unfortunately的部分才是本文的重点，也就是作者想表达的观点。

练习：运用转折法在横线处填入合适的句子

①Most Americans remember Mark Twain as_____.Indeed,this nation’s best-loved author was every bit as adventurous,patriotic,romantic,and humorous as anyone has ever imagined.However,I found another Twain as well—one who grew cynical,bitter and saddened by the profound personal tragedies life dealt him,a man who became obsessed with the frailties of the human race,who saw clearly ahead a black wall of night.（Another Twain in My Eyes）

参考答案：

the father of Huck Finn’s idyllic cruise through eternal boyhood and Tom Sawyer’s endless summer of freedom and adventure

②Nowadays,with the development of economy,existing cities are growing bigger and new cities are appearing._____.However,some problems also are emerging from the spread of urbanization.Among others,I think,the increasing loss of arable land is such a problem of major concern.（My View on Urbanization）

参考答案：

No doubt,this process of urbanization has brought about fundamental changes in China.More and more people have begun to live a well-off life.More and more areas have taken on a modern look

③In recent years,more and more teachers complain that（1）.Some even worry that（2）.

To be sure,many of our young people cannot see eye to eye with this view.However,as a university student,I myself would like to contend that we young people today are in general more self-centered and unsympathetic than our previous generations.（Love,and Then Be Loved）

参考答案：

（1）their students are indifferent to others

（2）the young generation might ruin the future of China

在提出自己相反的观点之前，作者要善于使用一些表达让步的关联词进行自然的过渡，如but,nevertheless,admittedly,however,notwithstanding等，以此连接其相互间的逻辑关系。

方法之四：“大小大”（概括—点题—审视）

使用这种方法时，文章的开头段主要分为三个部分：首先从大处着眼，总体上概括所写内容的背景；然后在前文给出总体论述范围的基础上，将所写的话题缩小到作者陈述的主题范围；最后明确给出作者的观点，即主题句，审视了前文陈述的主题，这实际上是对前一句内容的进一步扩充，论述的范围也随之扩大了。例如，

There is,in China,a popular saying that nothing is more delicious than dumplings or more enjoyable than eating dumplings.Indeed,people have them only on special occasions such as Spring Festivals and weddings,because it is generally but wrongly believed that it takes so much trouble to savor such a luxurious food.However,some Chinese friends say making dumplings is not as difficult as many people believe.

在上文的论述中，作者首先从大的范围写起，从总体上概括了文章的背景，即人们认为饺子很好吃；随后，作者进一步缩小了范围，详述了人们由于害怕麻烦而不愿包饺子这个现象，从而进一步引出了包饺子这个全文围绕的核心问题；最后，作者再次将范围扩大，审视了前文论述的包饺子的主题，并引出了自己下文想要论述的主题句，即在我看来，包饺子并没有人们想象中的那么复杂。全段思路清晰，每一句话都为下一句话的论述作了铺垫，使得文章整体读起来浑然一体。

练习：运用“大小大”的方法在下文的横线处填入合适的句子，使得填入的这句话在本段中起到点题的作用

①It is human nature to communicate with other fellow beings.Indeed,there is nobody but longs to talk to someone,and even the shiest person in the world is eager to be talked to._____.Almost without any exception,a good communicator is inevitably a good listener.（Listening）

参考答案：

However,one important part of communication has been largely neglected—listening

②We American are incredibly lazy.Instead of cooking a simple,nourishing meal,we pop a frozen dinner into the oven.Instead of studying a daily newspaper,we are contented with the capsule summaries on the network news.Worst of all,instead of walking even a few blocks to the local convenience store,we jump into our cars._____.If we drove less and walked more,we would save money,become healthier,and discover fascinating things about our surroundings.

参考答案：

This dependence on the automobile,even for short trips,has robbed us of a valuable experience—walking

综合前文对于开篇方法的介绍，我们可以看出，恰当地运用以上几种开篇方式，可以给评卷老师耳目一新的感觉。但是，无论采用哪一种开篇方法，在作文的开头段中都必须明确自己的观点，在表达上做到言简意赅，并且有意识地用一两句话自然地过渡到文章的主题上来。切忌在开头的段落中出现说话兜圈子、主题不明确、篇幅过长、词不达意的现象。